Kiswahili Syntax.Formation and Syntax of Contractions in Kiswahili
Leon .I. Oduor
Journal of Linguistics and Language in Education Vol. 9, Number 2
Formation and Syntax of Contractions in Kiswahili with
Special Emphasis on Noun-Possessive Combination
Abstract
Kiswahili contractions may be formed in various ways with a freestanding content word, a number figure or different word combinations with varying reducing degrees, sometimes becoming monosyllabic, with only a vowel or vowel-consonant combination. Most contractions are attached to host words to form permissible combinations. These attachments exhibit behaviour that implies that they are joined to the preceding or succeeding form in the lexicon, as affixes do (e.g. -yo from yako ‘your/yours’ is joined to baba ‘father’ to form babayo ‘your father’). Paradoxically, though, they behave syntactically like a group of clitics, created from two distinct constituents. This paper examines the behaviour of Kiswahili possessives in combining with nouns to form contractions. It looks into how Kiswahili speakers decide on choosing the appropriate combinatorial partners to form an appropriate and permissible contraction. Drawing from morphosyntactic cliticisation approach, the paper also examines the syntax of Kiswahili contractions.
Keywords: Kiswahili contractions, noun-possessive combination, syntax
Introduction
Kiswahili uses contractions as a brevity, time saving and speech connectivity device. It is, thus, not unusual to hear speakers say:
1. (a) Babangu (instead of baba yangu ‘my father’).
(b) Mwanao/ko (instead of mwana wako ‘your son/child’).
(c) Jinake (instead of jina lake ‘his/her/its name’). (d) Kakayo (instead of kaka yako ‘your brother’).
To the contrary, the same speakers do not say:
2. (a) Bintingu to mean my daughter.
(b) Mpenzingu to mean my love(r).
(c) Shemejinu to mean your (pl.) sister/brother in law. (d) Mwalimutu to mean our teacher.
The present paper examines how contractions are generally formed in Kiswahili and special reference is made to noun + possessive (henceforth
NPos) contractions. The aim is to find out what processes are involved in the formation and why certain contractions in general, and NPos combinations in particular, are allowed but not others. Two questions are answered. First, is Kiswahili NPos contraction formation a
morphosyntactic process of cliticisation with clear rules or a lexicalisation phenomenon resulting from a complex diachronic process? Secondly, why do Kiswahili speakers not use constructions like those in 2(a)-(d), while they accept those in 1(a)-(d)? The paper further examines the syntactic behaviour of the contractions resulting from NPos combinations given the controversy surrounding the syntax of contractions as noted by Spencer (1991), Wescoat (2005) and Spencer and Luís (2012), who argue that while contractions are traditionally regarded to behave syntactically like a group of clitics, some contractions seem to be incompatible with this view.
Justification and Methodology
Contractions have been given a blind eye in Kiswahili scholarship. Despite the fact that they are part and parcel of daily communication, little attention has been devoted to their study. Surprisingly, they even do not have a Kiswahili name and are nonexistent in many Kiswahili grammars (see, for example, Mfaume, 1984; Mohamed, 1986; Mdee, 1988; Massamba et al., 1999). It is the view of this paper that they deserve a scholarly analysis in order to identify the governing principles of how they are formed, how their permissibility is determined and how they behave syntactically in view of providing a scientific guide to Kiswahili teachers and learners.
The data for the paper were solicited from three types of sources. First, secondary sources were consulted. The researcher employed literature research to identify authentic Kiswahili contractions that speakers of the language use in real context. Although this method may seem ineffective given that contractions are common in spoken and non-formal language but usually avoided, even prohibited, in written discourse, some literature is rich in contractions. One can, for example, find such contractions as nami ‘with me’, asema ‘says’, babangu ‘my father’, mwanawe ‘his/her son/child’ and much more in such religious texts as Misale ya Waumini ‘Believers Missal’ and The Holy Bible. Literary texts, especially poems, are also rich in contractions.
Secondly, the data obtained from literature were complimented with another set of data generated through introspection since the researcher is also a Kiswahili speaker and a linguist. Thirdly, to establish which contractions were permissible and which ones were not, the researcher presented a list of contractions generated from literature and introspection to 20 (twenty) Kiswahili speakers and asked them to identify which ones were permissible and which ones were not. The participants were further asked to provide some more examples of permissible and impermissible contractions.
Definition of Key Terms and Theoretical Framework
The central term driving the present paper is contraction. Mohammed (2001:20) defines contraction as “a fusing of a sequence of forms so that they appear like a single form” and provides such examples as wa+enzi =
wenzi ‘partners; companions’ and wa+ana = wana ‘sons’, inter alia.
Mohammed looks at the concept from a process point of view. One may, however, wish to foreground the product of that process and conceptualise contraction as a shortened form of a number figure, a word or group of words, with missing letter(s) or number(s). In this paper, it is the second sense that is used. Whereas the missing letters or numbers are usually marked by an apostrophe in English language and contractions can be made up of one or more contractional clitics (e.g. don’t; shouldn't've), this is rare in Kiswahili because most contractions do not bear apostrophes.
As its analytical tool and theoretical framework, this paper adopts morphosyntactic cliticisation approach complemented by phonological analysis. This revolves around the idea of formation of complex words by attaching ‘little words’ resembling a full word, but which are incapable of standing on their own, but have to ‘lean on’ neighbouring or host (main) words, instead (Katamba, 1989; Spencer, 1991; Spencer & Luís, 2012). These little words are called clitics and their attachment to their host words, in case of NPos contractions, is governed by phonological rules and the interplay between morphological and syntactic principles.
Formation, Permissibility and Impermissibility of Kiswahili Contractions Kiswahili contractions can be formed in various ways. However, not all word categories can be used in the process.
Formation, Permissibility and Impermissibility of Kiswahili Contractions in General
The first way through which a Kiswahili contraction can be formed is by omitting a letter/sound or more from a free-standing word (i.e. one that does not need to attach to a host word) or a number or more from a number figure as in data 4. However, as data 3(a)-(c) and 5(a)-(c) illustrate, this process is applicable to open word categories only.
3. (a) Nitakuona ‘I will see you’ drops ‘i’ and becomes ntakuona.
(b) Ninakula ‘I am eating’ drops ‘ni’ and becomes ‘nakula’ or drops ‘ni’ and ‘ku’ to become nala.
(c) Mimi ‘I’ drops ‘mi’ and becomes mi.
4. Mwaka 1995 ‘the year 1995’ can drop ‘19’ and become mwaka 95, with or without an apostrophe (95 or’95).
5. (a) Na ‘and/with’ drops none of its letters to become any contraction. (b) Kwa ‘for/by/with’ drops none of its letters to become any contraction.
(c) Oyee! ‘Hurrah!’ drops none of its letters to become any contraction.
It is, therefore, impermissible to contract words from closed word categories as stand-alone words. Even under open word categories, adverbs, adjectives and interjections are not contracted as such. Only numbers referring to years and main verbs can be contracted. More examples may include ninasemanasema ‘I say/I am saying’,
ninakujanaja ‘I come/I am coming’; anakulaala ‘s/he eats/s/he is eating’; mnajuamwajua ‘you (pl.) know’; tukaendatukenda ‘We went’; amelalakalala ‘s/he is asleep/sleeping’; tumeshasematushasema ‘We have already said’; nilikwishawaonanshawaona ‘I have/had already seen them’, wataenda watenda ‘they will go’; wataenda ‘they will go’kwenda ‘to go’.
The processes involved in the formation of contractions exemplified above are either morphological or morphophonological. A contracted word is formed by deleting or inserting one or more letters/sounds with or without phonological adjustments to the adjacent sounds. When the deletion involves a phonological process, the adjacent sounds that are phonologically adjusted are glidised, palatalised, fricativised and some cases involve vowel harmony.
To begin with deletion without phonological adjustments, some phonological and morphological factors of the verb in question such as its syllabic character (is it mono or multisyllabic?), personality of concordial agreement marker (is it in first, second or third person?), number (is it in singular or plural form), tense (is it in present, past or future tense?), affirmativity or negativity (is it affirmative or negative?) as well as the noun class of its subject prefix have to be considered.
For example, contraction of multisyllabic affirmative present tense verbs in first person singular and second person singular, as well as plural, involve deletion of the adjoining parts of the subject prefix and tense marker (e.g. ninasemaninasemanasema ‘I say/I am saying’; anawezaanawezaaweza ‘s/he is capable’). This also applies to verbs with subject prefix markers from classes 5, 6 (e.g. linaelealinaelealaelea ‘it (thing e.g. a buoy) floats/it is floating’; yanaeleayanaeleayaelea ‘they (things e.g. buoys) float/they are floating’), 10 (e.g. zinauzwazinauzazauzwa ‘they (e.g. houses) are sold/they (e.g. houses) are being sold’), 15 (e.g. yanasumbuayanasumbuayasumbua ‘they (e.g. diseases) bother’/‘they (e.g. diseases) are bothering’) and 16 (e.g. panatuliapanatuliapatulia ‘it (a place) gets calm’/‘it (a place) is
getting calm’).
In monosyllabic verbs, in addition to the adjoining parts of the subject prefix and tense marker, the infinitive morpheme {ku} is also omitted
(e.g. ninakulaninakulanala ‘I eat/I am eating’; wanakunywawanakunywawanywa ‘they drink/they are drinking’ etc). No contractions are formed out of negative verbs.
With regard to deletion with phonological adjustments, the above mentioned phonological and morphological factors have also to be borne in mind. Contraction of multisyllabic affirmative present tense verbs in first person plural and second person singular, as well as verbs with subject prefix markers from classes 3, 11, 13, 14 and 18, involves deletion of the nasal consonant /n/ in the tense marker and glidisation of the subject prefix vowel /u/ (e.g. tunaonatunaonatwaona ‘We see/We are seeing’; unapendaunapendawapenda ‘you (sg.) like/love’; kunavutiakunavutiakwavutia ‘it (e.g. singing) is attractive’; kunatishakunatishakwatisha ‘it (a place there or yonder) is scary’). This also applies to verbs with subject prefix markers from classes 4 and 9. However, instead of /u/, the subject prefix vowel that is glidised is /i/ (e.g. inaunguainaunguayaungua ‘they (e.g. trees) burn/ they (e.g. trees) are burning’; inaunguainaunguayaungua ‘it (e.g. a house) burns/it (e.g. a house) is burning’). In monosyllabic verbs, in addition to the nasal consonant in the tense marker, the infinitive morpheme {ku} is also omitted (e.g. tunakulatunakulatwala ‘We eat/We are eating’).
Palatalisation and fricativisation take place in verbs with subject prefix markers from classes 7 and 8 respectively whereby ‘ki-’ becomes
‘ch-’ and ‘vi-’ becomes ‘vy-’ respectively (e.g. kinaunguakinaunguachaungua ‘it (e.g. a chair) burns/it (e.g. a chair) is burning’; vinaunguavinaunguavyaungua ‘they (e.g. chairs) burn/they (e.g. chairs) are burning’).
Again, verbs in future tense ‘-ta-’ and those in narrative tense ‘-ka-’ drop the sound /a/ in front of the tense marker as a result of vowel harmony. The sound is dropped when it comes into contact with mid vowel /e/ (e.g. tukaendatukaendatukenda ‘We went’; wataelewa wataelewawatelewa ‘they will understand’). The contractions of this nature, however, are largely dialectical. No contractions are formed out of negative verbs.
With regard to insertion, verbs in past tense and perfect tense aspect insert a morpheme ‘sha’ or ‘isha’ or ‘kwisha’ between the tense/aspect marker ‘li/me’ and the verb before the tense marker to emphasise completeness of an action or activity, after which the portions ‘i’, ‘kwi’ and the tense marker are deleted to contract (e.g. tumeshasematumeshasematushasema ‘We have already said’; nilikwishawaonanilikwishawaonanshawaona ‘I have/had already seen them’), or the subject prefix ‘a’ and the perfective ‘me’ are dropped and replaced by a verbal prefix ‘ka’ (e.g. ameshasemaameshasemakashasema ‘s/he has already said’). Again, verbs in present tense, second person plural, and those with class 17 subject prefix, drop the nasal consonant in the tense marker, after which vowel /u/ is inserted and glidised (e.g. mnaimbamnaimbamaimbamuaimbamwaimba ‘you (pl.) sing/you (pl.) are singing; mnatuliamnatuliamatuliamuatuliamwatulia ‘it (inside.) gets calm/it (inside) is getting calm).
Another way of forming Kiswahili contractions involves omission plus combination. A letter/sound or more or even a word can be omitted from a word or series of words and the resulting form is combined with another word or series of words to form a single word. For example:
6. Mama ‘mother’ drops ‘ma’ and combines with mkubwa ‘big/elder’ to form mamkubwa ‘maternal aunt; elder sister to one’s mother’.
7. Baba ‘father’ drops ‘a’ and yangu ‘my/mine’ drops ‘y’ and the two combine to form babangu ‘my father’.
8. Kuma ya mama yake ‘his/her mother’s cunt’ drops ‘ya’ after the first word, one ‘ma’ from mama and ‘ak’ from yake and becomes
kumamaye ‘his/her mother’s cunt’.
9. (a) Mimi ‘I/me’ drops ‘mi’ and combines with na to form nami ‘with me’.
(b) Wewe ‘you (sg.)’ drops ‘we’ and combines with na to form nawe ‘with you (sg.)’.
(c) Yeye ‘s/he/him/her’ drops ‘ye’ and combines with na to form naye ‘with him/her’.
(d) Sisi ‘we/us’ drops ‘si’ and combines with na to form nasi ‘with us’.
(e) Nyinyi ‘you (pl.) drops ‘nyi’ and combines with na to form nanyi ‘with you (pl.)’.
(f) Wao ‘they/them’ drops ‘wa’ and combines with na to form nao ‘with them’.
More or less like the first one, this way is mostly applicable to open word categories, particularly pronouns, nouns, adjectives and possessives, because it is only conjunction cum preposition na ‘and/with’ under closed word categories that can form contractions by combining with contracted pronouns (see data 9(a)-(f) above). Nouns are also not contracted as standalone words. They do so by combining either with other nouns (e.g. baba ‘father’ + watoto ‘children/kids’bawatoto ‘father of kids’; kaka ‘brother’ + Masika ‘someone’s proper name meaning rainy season’kaMasika ‘brother
Masika) or with words from other categories such as adjective (e.g. baba ‘father’ + mkubwa ‘big’bamkubwa ‘elder paternal uncle; elder brother to one’s father’; bwana ‘mister’ + mdogo ‘small’bwamdogo ‘mister small, to mean someone’s juniour’) and possessives (e.g. mwana ‘son/child’ + wangu ‘my/mine’mwanangu ‘my son/child’). Of these combinations, NPos is the most productive combination in Kiswahili. Hence, the quest for the present paper’s special emphasis on NPos contractions.
Formation, Permissibility and Impermissibility of NPos Kiswahili Contractions
The participants asked to identify permissible and impermissible contractions did identify a sufficient number of permissible and impermissible NPos contractions. They also did provide some more data of permissible and impermissible NPos contractions. The data were classified into eight groups, with regard to their noun classes (see Appendix). Under each class, the data with final vowel /a/ are presented first, followed by those ending in /e/, /i/, /o/ and /u/ respectively. The permissible contractions are unmarked, while the impermissible ones are indicated with an asterisk and the doubtful ones with a question mark at the beginning.
The data reveal four major findings. First, quite a variety of nouns can form contractions with possessives. Secondly, there are various ways through which NPos contractions can be formed. Thirdly, there are possessives that are more productive than others. And finally, the formation of NPos contractions is predictable and is governed by clear morphosyntactic and phonological principles.
To begin with which nouns can form contractions with possessives, opinion among scholars is divided. Some argue that the purview is limited to terms of relationship (Kamusi Project, 2015; SALAMA, 2015), also known as kinship terms (Peace Corps Tanzania, 1998:44) or family-relation names (SALAMA, 2015). Others maintain that pronouns and other nouns are also useful (see Quizlet, 2015). However, it is not clear how pronouns can be useful in NPos contraction formation.
It is true that kinship terms are commonly used in formation of NPos contractions and many permissible contractions can be formed through this combination (e.g. babangu ‘my father’; babako ‘your father’, babayo ‘your father’, babazo ‘your fathers’; babake ‘his/her father’, babaye ‘his/her father’, babaze ‘his/her fathers’; babetu ‘our father’; babenu ‘yourr father’; mwanangu ‘my son/child’, wanangu ‘my sons/children’; mwanao ‘your son/child’, wanao ‘your sons/children’; mwanawe ‘his/her son/child’;
wanawe ‘his/her sons/children’; mwanetu ‘our son/child’; wanetu ‘our sons/children’, mjukuuwe ‘his/her grand child’, wajukuuze ‘his/her grand children’ etc (for more examples, see data 1 under Appendix).
However, SALAMA and Kamusi Project’s contention is questionable for two reasons. First, not all kinship terms can form NPos contractions with every possessive. For instance, although formed through NPos combination, the following contractions are impermissible in Kiswahili:
*mjukuungu, *mjukangu, *wajukuungu; *wajukangu; *mjukuuko,
*mjukako; *mjukuuke, *mjukake;*wajuuke; *wajukake, *babutu, *wifinu,
*mtotonu and *mketu, inter alia. This is because kinship terms like babu ‘grandfather’, binti ‘daughter’, shangazi ‘paternal aunt’, wifi ‘sister in law’ (used by women only), mke ‘wife’, mtoto ‘child’ and many more others that do not end in /a/, are not compatible with the possessives -angu ‘my/mine’, -etu ‘our/ours’, -enu ‘your/yours’ and -ao ‘their/theirs’. They can operate freely only with ‘-ako’ and ‘-ake’. As such, such kinship terms are more selective than their counterparts ending in /a/. The pattern is, therefore, that terms ending in /a/ such as mama ‘mother’, baba ‘father’, kaka ‘brother’, dada ‘sister’, nyanya ‘grandmother’, inter alia, can combine with every possessive (-angu, -ake, -ako, -etu, -enu and -ao) to form NPos contractions, while those ending in vowel other than /a/ operate with ‘-ako’ and ‘ake’ only.
Secondly, there is a plethora of evidence showing that, apart from kinship terms, there are other nouns that can form NPos contractions. These include:
10. Proper nouns: ?Dodomaye ‘his/her Dodoma’, ?Kenyayo ‘your Kenya’, *Masanjangu ‘my Masanja’ etc.
11. Common nouns: kitabucho ‘your book’, harufuye ‘his/her/its smell’, mtuwe ‘his/her person’ etc.
12. Concrete nouns: simuzo ‘your phones’, garile ‘his/her car’, majiyo ‘your (sg.) water’etc.
13. Abstrcact nouns: mawazoyo ‘you ideas/thoughts’, wemao ‘your (sg.) goodness/kindness’ etc.
14. Countable and uncountable nouns:
(a) *Shambangu ‘my farm’/mashambangu ‘my farms’, kitandacho/vitandavyo ‘your bed(s)’, garile/magariye ‘his/her
car(s)’, kalamuyo/kalamuzo ‘your (sg.) pen(s)’ etc.
(b) Moshiwe ‘its smoke’, hewaye ‘its air’, harufuyo ‘your smell’
15. Collective nouns: jeshilo ‘your (sg.) army’ *jeshinu ‘your (pl.) army’, timuyo/timuzo ‘your team(s)’ etc.
The data in 10-15 speak against the contention that NPos contractions cannot be formed out of nouns other than kinship terms. Data 1 through 8 in the APPENDIX also prove this fact. Therefore, NPos contractions can be formed out of a plethora of nouns; concrete and abstract nouns, singular and plural nous, countable and uncountable nouns, collective and individual nouns and nouns from all noun classes. The only exception seems to be proper nouns and those in class 15 (e.g. kuimba ‘singing’, kupenda
‘loving’).
The data show two clear patterns of NPos forms. The first one is N + -angu, -ake, -ako, -etu, -enu and –ao, which applies to nouns ending in /a/. However, under this pattern, kinship terms enjoy more flexibility than others as shown in data 16. The second pattern is N + -ake and –ako, which is applicable to nouns ending in vowels other than /a/ as exemplified in data 17.
16. N+-angu, -ake, -ako, -etu, -enu and -ao pattern
S/N Noun Gloss N+-angu N+-ako N+-ake N+-etu N+-enu N+-ao
(i) Baba father(s) babangu babako; babayo; babazo babake; babaye; babaze
babetu(sg.) babenu(sg.) babao(sg.)
(ii) Mama mother(s) mamangu mamako; mamayo;
mamazo
mamake; mamaye; mamaze mametu(sg.) mamenu(sg.) mamao(sg.)
(iii) Dada sister(s) dadangu dadako; dadayo;
dadazo
dadake; dadaye; dadaze dadetu(sg.) dadenu(sg.) dadao(sg.)
(iv) Mwana Wana child children mwanangu wanangu mwanao;
wanao
mwanawe; wanawe mwanetu; wanetu mwanenu; wanenu *mwanao
*wanao
(v) Nyanya grandma(s) nyanyangu nyanyako; nyanyayo;
nyanyazo
nyanyaye; nyanyaze nyanyetu nyanyenu nyanyao
(vi) Nyumba house(s) nyumbangu nyumbako; nyumbayo;
nyumbazo
nyumbake; nyumbaye; nyumbaze nyumbetu(sg.) nyumbenu(sg.) nyumbao(sg.)
(vii) Kamba rope(s) kambangu kambako; kambayo;
kambazo
kambake; kambaye; kambaze ?kambetu ?kambenu(sg.) kambao(sg.)
(viii) Familia family(ies) familiangu familiayo familiazo familiaye;
familiaze
*familietu(sg.) *familienu familiao(sg.)
(ix) Unyoya Manyoya feather; quil; hair strand feathers; quils; hair strands
*unyoyangu;
*manyoyangu unyoya(w)o manyoyayo unyoyawe; manyoyaye *unyoyatu;
*unyoyetu
*manyoyatu;
*manyoyetu *unyoyenu
*manyoyenu *unyoyao
*manyoyao
(x) Ubua Mabua straw, stubble straws,
stubbles
*ubuangu;
*mabuangu ubua(w)o; mabuayo ubuawe; mabuaye *ubuatu;
*ubuetu
*mabuatu;
*mabuetu *ubuanu
*ubuenu
*mabuani
*mabuenu *ubuao
*mabuao
(xi) Pigo
Mapigo blow blows *pigongu;
*pigangu
*mapigongu
*mapigangu *pigoko; *pigako; pigolo;
*mapigoko; *mapigako;
mapigoyo
*pigoke; *pigake; pigole;
*mapigoke; *mapigake; mapigoye *pigotu; *pigetu
*mapigotu;
*mapigetu *pigonu;
*pigenu
*mapigonu;
*mapigenu *pigoo; *pigao
*mapigoo;
*mapigao
17. N+-ake and -ako pattern
S/N Noun Gloss N+-angu N+-ako N+-ake N+-etu N+-enu N+-ao
(i) Mume Waume husband husbands *mumengu
*mumangu
*waumengu
*waumangu
mumeo; waumezo mumewe;
waumewe waumeze ?mumetu;
*waumetu ?mumenu;
?waumenu *mume(w)o;
*waume(w)o
(ii) Mke Wake wife wives *mkengu
*mkangu
*wakengu
*wakangu
mkeo
wakeo; wakezo mkewe;
wakewe; wakeze ?mketu;
?waketu ?mkenu;
?wakenu *mke(w)o;
*wake(w)o
(iii) Bibi grandma(s) *bibingu
*bibangu
bibiyo;
bibizo bibiye;
bibize *bibetu *bibenu ?bibio
(iv) Mpenzi Wapenzi love(r)
lovers *mpenzingu
*wapenzingu
mpenzio; wapenzio mpenziwe;
wapenziwe *mpenzitu
*wapenzitu ?mpenzinu
?wapenzinu ?mpenzi(w)o
?wapenzi(w)o
(v) Mti Miti tree trees *mtingu;
*mtangu
*mitingu
*mitangu
mti(w)o;
mitiyo mtiwe mitiye *mtitu; *mtetu
*mititu; *mitetu *mtinu; *mtenu
*mitinu;
*mitenu *mtio; *mtao
*mitio; *mitao
(vi) Mzigo Mizigo luggage *mzigongu;
*mzigangu
*mizigongu
*mizigangu
mzigowo;
mizigoyo mzigowe;
mizigoye *mzigotu;
*mzigetu
*mizigotu; *mizigetu *mzigonu;
*mzigenu
*mizigonu; *mizigenu *mzigoo;
*mzigao
*mizigoo; *mizigao
Regarding how NPos contractions are formed, the data indicate that the words involved in the formation are subjected to a morphosyntactic process of cliticisation. In this process, a complex word is formed by attaching a clitic to a fully independent word. As noted earlier, clitics are ‘little words’ resembling a full word, but which are incapable of standing on their own, but have to ‘lean on’ neighbouring or host (main) words, instead (Katamba, 1989; Spencer, 1991; Spencer & Luís, 2012). Given that possessives are capable of standing on their own, they are first cliticised before they are attached to a host word to form NPos contractions.
There are two ways through which possessives are cliticised. Either the adjoining portions of the relevant noun and the possessive or the mid-portion of the possessive are eliminated after which they are fused with the host words. The reducing degrees of cliticisation vary. At times, the cliticised word becomes monosyllabic with only a single vowel (wako ‘your/yours’ becomes ‘o’ as in mwana ‘son/child’+wako = mwanao ‘your son/child’) or with a vowel-consonant combination (yake ‘his/her/hers’ becomes ‘-ye’ or ‘-ke’ as in mama ‘mother’ + yake = mamaye/mamake ‘his/her mother’.
However, before elimination is effected, the noun in question first determines the concordial agreement of the possessive (e.g. mwenzi
wangu; baba yangu; gari lake; nyumba yako etc). When the host word and the clitic are fused, they make one form which is realised phonologically as a single word identified by one stress at the penultimate syllabe. The new combination may have the stress on a different syllable or on the original syllable of one of the two words.
The question of whether one should eliminate adjoining portions of the contracting words or mid-portion of the possessive is determined by morphological and phonological criteria. First, when the process involves nouns in class 1 ending in /a/, preferably kinship terms, the adjoining portions of the contracting words are eliminated. Thus, mwenza wangu ‘my partner/companion’ becomes mwenzangu after the adjoining parts have been struck off as in 18 (more examples in 19):
18. mwenza wangu mwenz(a w)angu mwenzangu
19. NPos contractions resulting from omission of adjoining portions in singular form
S/N. Possessive “-angu” as “my” or “mine”
(i) mwenza wangu becomes mwenzangu
(ii) mwana wangu becomes mwanangu
(iii) mama yangu becomes mamangu
(iv) baba yangu becomes babangu
(v) kaka yangu becomes kakangu
(vi) dada yangu becomes dadangu
(vii) mjomba yangu becomes mjombangu
(viii) nyanya yangu becomes nyanyangu
(ix) mpendwa wangu becomes ?mpendwangu
(x) msichana wangu becomes ?msichanangu
Possessive “-ako” as “your” or “yours” (singular)
(xi) mwenza wako becomes mwenzako
(xii) mwana wako becomes ?mwanako
(xiii) mama yako becomes mamako
(xiv) baba yako becomes babako
(xv) kaka yako becomes kakako
(xvi) dada yako becomes dadako
(xvii) mjomba yako becomes mjombako
(xviii) nyanya yako becomes nyanyako
(xix) mpendwa wako becomes ?mpendwako
(xx) msichana wako becomes ?msichanako
Possessive “-ake” as “his/her” or “his/hers”
(xxi) mwenza wake becomes mwenzake
(xxii) mwana wake becomes mwanake
(xxiii) mama yake becomes ?mamake
(xxiv) baba yake becomes babake
(xxv) kaka yake becomes kakake
(xxvi) dada yake becomes dadake
(xxvii) mjomba yake becomes mjombake
(xxviii) nyanya yake becomes nyanyake
(xxix) mpendwa wake becomes ?mpendwake
(xxx) msichana wake becomes ?msichanake
This pattern also applies to the plural possessives “-etu” as “our” or “ours”, “-enu” as “your” or “yours” (plural) and “-ao” as “their” or “theirs”.
While those nouns in 19 that take ‘w-’ as their subject prefix can be pluralised (prefix not affected) and combined with possessives to form permissible contractions, those that take ‘y-’ (which canges into ‘z’ in plural) cannot. Thus:
20. NPos contractions resulting from omission of adjoining portions in plural form
S/N.
Possessive “-angu” as “my” or “mine”
(i) wenza wangu becomes wenzangu
(ii) wana wangu becomes wanangu
(iii) mama zangu becomes *mamangu
(iv) baba zangu becomes *babangu
(v) kaka zangu becomes *kakangu
(vi) dada zangu becomes *dadangu
(vii) wajomba zangu becomes *wajombangu
(viii) nyanya zangu becomes *nyanyangu
(ix) wapendwa wangu becomes ?wapendwangu
(x) wasichana wangu becomes ?wasichanangu
Possessive “-ako” as “your” or “yours” (singular)
(xi) wenza wako becomes wenzako
(xii) wana wako becomes ?wanako
(xiii) mama zako becomes *mamako
(xiv) baba zako becomes *babako
(xv) kaka zako becomes *kakako
(xvi) dada zako becomes *dadako
(xvii) wajomba zako becomes *wajombako
(xviii) nyanya zako becomes *nyanyako
(xix) wapendwa wako becomes ?wapendwako
(xx) wasichana wako becomes ?wasichanako
Possessive “-ake” as “his/her” or “his/hers”
(xxi) wenza wake becomes wenzake
(xxii) wana wake becomes *wanake
(xxiii) mama zake becomes ?mamake
(xxiv) baba zake becomes *babake
(xxv) kaka zake becomes *kakake
(xxvi) dada zake becomes dadake
(xxvii) mjomba zake becomes mjombake
(xxviii) nyanya zake becomes nyanyake
(xxix) wapendwa wake becomes ?wapendwake
(xxx) wasichana wake becomes ?wasichanake
Although it may seem clear from the examples in 19 that formation of NPos contractions in Kiswahili is straight forward, it may be worth noting here two things. First, not all nouns ending in /a/ can be used to produce similar results. For instance, eliminating the adjoining portions of mwana ‘son/child’ + wako ‘your/yours (sg.)’mwana wako yields a contraction ?mwanako whose existence in Kiswahili is doubtful because the common one is mwanao. In this contraction, the sound /k/, which is maintained throughout examples 19(xiii) to (xviii), is lost. This also applies to such words as mpwao ‘your nephew/niece’, mchumbao ‘your fiancé/fiancée’, and mshengao ‘your intermediary/go-between’, inter alia. Secondly, as illustrated in 20, kinship terms without noun class prefixes, or other nouns with or without noun class prefixes, especially those taking ‘-y’ as their subject prefix, either make contractions in plural forms which are exactly the same as those in their singular forms, or make unacceptable ones in both singular and plural forms as further examplified in 21.
21. NPos combinations that yield ambiguous and/or unacceptable contractions
No.
Singular
Plural
Possessive “-angu” as “my” or “mine”
(i) baba yangu becomes babangu baba zangu becomes *babangu
(ii) mama yangu becomes mamangu mama zangu becomes *mamangu
(iii) kaka yangu becomes kakangu kaka zangu becomes *kakangu
(iv) wifi yangu becomes *wifangu mawifi zangu becomes *mawifangu
Possessive “-ako” as “your” or “yours” (singular)
(v) mti wako becomes *mtako miti yako becomes *mitako
(vi) mkono wako becomes *mkonako mikono yako becomes *mikonako
(vii) kidevu chako becomes *kidevako videvu vyako becomes *videvako
(viii) pombe yako becomes *pombako pombe zako becomes *pombako
Possessive “-ake” as “his/her” or “his/hers”
(ix) redio yake becomes *redake redio zake becomes *redake
(x) shoga yake becomes shogake shoga zake becomes shogake
(xi) kasoro yetu becomes *kasoretu kasoro zetu becomes *kasoretu
(xii) bei yake becomes *beake bei zake becomes *beake
Possessive “-etu” as “our” or “ours”
(xiii) chumba chetu becomes *chumbetu vyumba vyetu becomes *vyumbetu
(xiv) tabia yetu becomes *tabietu tabia zetu becomes *tabietu
(xv) upendo wetu becomes *upendetu not applicable
Possessive “-enu” as “your” or “yours” (plural)
(xvi) ndugu yenu becomes *ndugenu ndugu zenu becomes *ndugenu
(xvii) mtoto wenu becomes *mtotenu watoto wenu becomes *watotenu
(xviii) zulia lenu becomes *zulienu mazulia yenu becomes *mazulienu
Possessive “-ao” as “their” or “theirs”
(xix) unywele wao becomes *unywelao nywele zao becomes *nywelao
(xx) upepo wao becomes *upepao pepo zao becomes *pepao
The discrepancies noted in 20 and 21 call for a plausible explanation as to how Kiswahili speakers face this challenge. This is where elimination of the mid-portion of the possessive involved in the contraction formation comes in. This strategy applies to nouns ending in vowels other than /a/ and those that take ‘y-’ as their subject prefix (which canges into ‘z’ in plural) in both singular and plural. It should be noted that the possessives involved are ‘-ako’ and ‘-ake’ only. Thus, gari lako ‘your (sg.) car/vehicle’ becomes garilo after deletion of the mid-portion of the possessive as in 22 (more examples in 23):
22. gari lako gari l(a k)o garilo
23. NPos contractions resulting from omission of the mid-portion of the possessive
No. Singular Plural
Possessive “-angu” as “my” or “mine”
(i) mdogo wangu becomes *mdogowgu wadogo zangu becomes *wadogozgu
(ii) mama yangu becomes *mamaygu mama zangu becomes *mamazgu
Possessive “-ako” as “your” or “yours” (singular)
(iii) mgogoro wako becomes mgogorowo mgogoro yako becomes migogoroyo
(iv) ndugu yako becomes nduguyo ndugu zako becomes nduguzo
(v) baba yako becomes babayo baba zako becomes babazo
(vi) utete wako becomes utetewo matete yako becomes mateteyo
Possessive “-ake” as “his/her” or “his/hers”
(vii) mke wake becomes mkewe wakez ake becomes wakeze
(viii) chumba chake becomes chumbache vyumba vyake becomes vyumbavye
Possessive “-etu” as “our” or “ours”
(ix) nyumba yetu becomes *nyumbayu nyumba zetu becomes *nyumbazu
(x) sanduku letu becomes *sandukulu masanduku yetu becomes *masandukuyu
Possessive “-enu” as “your” or “yours” (plural)
(xi) ukuta wenu becomes *ukutawu kuta zenu becomes *kutazu
(xii) msukule wenu becomes *msukulewu misukule yenu becomes *misukuleyu
Possessive “-ao” as “their” or “theirs”
(xiii) shindano lao becomes shindanolo mashindano yao becomes mashindanoyo
From data 23, it is obvious that omission of the mid-portion of the possessive caters for two possessives only, namely ‘-ako’ and ‘-ake’. Further, some contractions formed through deletion of the midportion of the possessive, mostly ‘-ako’, also lose the noun class prefix of the possessive in question. For instance, mwana w(ak)o ‘your son/child’ contracts to mwanawo and then loses the prefix ‘w’ before ‘o’, leaving mwanao. The same also applies to mkeo ‘your (sg.) wife’, mumeo‘your (sg.) husband’, mpenzio‘your (sg.) love(r)’, mwenzio ‘your (sg.) partner/companion’, mchumbao ‘your (sg.) fiancé/fiancée’, mshengao ‘your (sg.) intermediary/go-between’, mpwao ‘your (sg.) nephew/niece’, mpangajio ‘your (sg.) tenant’, mkateo ‘your (sg.) bread’, mzukao ‘your (sg.) ghost/spirit’ etc (see Appendix for more examples).
Regarding the productivity of possessives, the data show that singular possessives are more productive than their plural counterparts. The data further indicate that, of the singular possessives, ‘-ako’ and ‘-ake’ are the most productive (see data 23 and Appendix). They can form contractions with any noun, excep those in classes 16, 17 and 18 (PA, MU and KU).
Finally, the morphosyntactic and phological principles that govern the formation of NPos contractions in Kiswahili lie in elimination of the adjoining portions of the noun and the possessive involved or the mid-portion of the possessive involved as determined by the final vowel of the nouns in question. When the process involves nouns in class 1 ending in /a/, as noted earlier, the adjoining portions of the contracting words are eliminated. However, when it involves nouns ending in such vowels as /e/, /i/, /o/ and /u/ and those that take ‘y-’ as their subject prefix (which canges into ‘z’ in plural), in both singular and plural, the target of elimination becomes the mid-portions, and the possessives involved are only ‘-ako’ and ‘-ake’.
Utility and Syntax of Kiswahili Contractions
There is a general consensus that the common usage of contractions is in speech and colloquial forms of writing (Heidinger, 1984:88; Bybee, 2007:11). Bybee (2007:11) points out that many contractions, exceptions and oddities in language are a result of extremely high frequency of use. Frequent use of a given word leads to, inter alia, its phonological and morphological reduction (Bybee 2007:11). For example, Kiswahili speakers would tend to reduce words like mimi ‘I’, mama ‘mother’ and wako ‘your/yours (sg.)’ because they are used frequently, but not words like tini ‘notes’, tapo ‘school of thought’, or dama ‘draughts’, which are not frequent, even though the two sets of words are phonologically similar. Frequent use of a word makes people tired of saying it over and over again. As such, there are such contractions as can’t, don’t, I’ll, you’d etc. because people get tired of saying “cannot”, “do not”, “I will” etc. over and over again. Since people do converse more than they write, contractions are commonly used in spoken language.
Likewise, common contractions in Kiswahili are a result of their frequent use. That is why forms like mwanangu, babake, babaye etc may tempt one to regard them as lexical items in their own right, having come into existence via frequent use, while forms like msichanake, mashambake etc seem doubtful because they are not used frequently. While it is true that contractions are commonly used in spoken discourse, there are some which are also not strange in written Kiswahili. For instance, it is not strange to come by contactions such as ‘baadaye’ ‘afterwards’ instead of ‘baada yake’, ‘na-’ instead of ‘nina’ as in ‘naendelea kudai kuwa …’ instead of ‘ninaendelea kudai kuwa …’ ‘I go on claiming that …’. Additionally, kinship terms like mwenziwe, mkewe, mumewe and mwanawe are also not strange to come by in written texts.
Denzer-King (2007) argues that contractions have little or nothing to do with syntax or morphology. However, when one examines the data in this paper, it becomes obvious that contractions do have syntactic behaviours. For instance, the data indicate that Kiswahili words that do not form contractions as stand-alone words, but as combination of more than one word, may contract only when they are adjacent. Thus, ‘na’ and ‘mimi’ cannot combine to form a contraction in this context: na aliingia mimi
nikimwona ‘and s/he entered while I was seeing him/her’. However, because of adjacency, contraction is possible in aliingia na mimi pia nikamwona ‘s/he entered and I saw him/her’: ‘aliingia nami pia nikamwona’. Similarly, mama na watoto ‘mother and children/kids’ cannot contract because of the interruption by ‘na’. When ‘mama’ and ‘watoto’ are adjacent as in mama watoto, it is possible to contract into mawatoto ‘mother of children/kids’. Likewise, kaka aliye wangu ‘the brother who is mine’ cannot yield kakangu ‘my brother’ because of the interruption by aliye ‘who is’. What then are the syntactic behaviours of Kiswahili NPos contractions?
Kiswahili NPos Contractions as Clitics
There is no any study known to the present researcher on the treatment of Kiswahili contractions as clitics. On the other hand, English contractions, especially auxiliary contractions, have been “routinely treated as clitics” (Wescoat, 2005:1). Representing this view are Zwicky (1977) and Zwicky and Pullum (1983). Zwicky, for example, treats auxiliary contractions in English as “members of the class of simple clitics” (Wescoat, 2005:1, emphasis in the original), which comprises “cases where a free morpheme, when unaccented, may be phonologically subordinated to a neighboring word” (Zwicky, 1977:5). What Zwicky means is that a contraction corresponds to the free form, and the contracted form only arises in places where the full form could have occurred. For example:
24. (a) I’ll come.
(b) I will come.
Therefore, English auxiliary contractions are clitics because they are syntactically free but phonologically bound to other forms in the lexicon (Katamba, 1989; Wescoat, 2005; Spencer & Luís, 2012). This means that when they are not yet contracted and attached to the host word(s), they are realised as independent words. But when they contract and join the host word(s), the two are realised as a single word.
In Kiswahili, possessive contractions which are attached to the preceding or succeeding lexical item behave syntactically in similar ways as the English auxiliary contractions–as clitics realised phonologically as single words. Before they are contracted and attached to the host word(s), they are realised as independent words with their independent stress. But after contraction and attachment to the host word(s), the two (host word + possessive contraction) are realised as a single word with only one stress at the penultimate syllable. Likewise, the contracted forms only arise in places where the full form could have occurred as in 25.
25. (a) Mke wake ni mrembo ‘His wife is beautiful’.
(b) Mkewe ni mrembo ‘His wife is beautiful’.
Lexicalist Counteranalyses to the Contractions as Clitics View
While Kiswahili and English contractions behave syntactically as clitics, there have been counterarguments that some English auxiliary contractions seem to be incompatible with the contractions as clitics view (see, for example, Spencer, 1991:383). To that effect, there have also been proposals that contractions should be seen as affixes, based on selection
(contractions select restrictively the hosts to which they attach) and morphophonological idiosyncrasies criteria (Wescoat, 2005:2). For instance, Sadler (1998) has proposed a treatment of the “pairings of pronouns with nonsyllabic auxiliary contractions as tense-marked
pronouns (D)” (Wescoat, 2005:5, emphasis in the original), as in 26a (figure 1). Bender and Sag (2001) have proposed to incorporate the pronoun into the auxiliary (V), which in turn combines with a base-form VP to yield a saturated sentence that does not require a subject NP, as in 26b (figure 1). Since selection and morphophonological idiosyncrasies are lexical issues (Wescoat, 2005:4), analyses that adopt this view have been called lexicalist.
26.
Fig. 1 An example of lexicalist analyses of English auxiliary contractions (adopted from
Wescoat, 2005:5)
Legend
IP = Inflectional phrase
S = Saturated sentence
I' = I-bar (an X-bar level in X-bar syntax that allows further expansion to include complements, adjuncts and recursion)
DP = Tense-marked pronoun phrase
D = Tense-marked pronoun
VP = Verb phrase
V = Verb
The lexicalist analyses are, however, not without problems. Wescoat, for example, notes that these approaches render difficulties in prediction of the syntax of contractions. Wescoat cites coordination as an example, highlighting that “coordination fails to apply to the hypothesized affixed word” (Wescoat, 2005:5), as in 27.
27. *You’re and I’m helping.
In Kiswahili, there are no instances where coordination fails to apply to the NPos contractions as it can be seen in 28.
28. (a) Utakwenda na mkeo na mwanawe ‘You will go with your wife and her son/child’.
(b) Usingiziwe na ndotoze ni liwazo kwake ‘Her/his sleep and dreams are a comfort to her/him’.
(c) Babangu na mamangu ni walimu ‘My father and my mother are teachers’.
Considering Zwicky and Pullum’s (1983:504) observation that “syntactic rules can affect affixed words, but cannot affect clitic groups,” the view that contractions are a group of clitics stands out to hold much more water than the lexicalist approaches.
Conclusion
The present paper set out to (i) investigate how Kiswahili speakers decide on choosing the appropriate combinatorial partners to form appropriate and permissible contractions, (ii) explore the contraction-formation procedures and (iii) examine the syntactic behaviour of Kiswahili contractions with special emphasis on noun-possessive combination. Five major findings have been highlighted: (i) noun-possessive combination in formation of Kiswahili contractions is not limited to kinship terms since a range of nouns can be used to form NPos contractions; (ii) Kiswahili NPos contractions can be formed through omission of the adjoining portions of the words involved or of the mid-portion of the possessive in question, the processes which are governed by phonological and morphosyntactic principles; (iii) singular possessives tend to be more productive than their plural counterparts and, among them, ‘-ako’ and ‘-ake’ are the most productive; (iv) the formation of NPos contractions is predictable and is governed by morphosyntactic and phological principles such as cliticisation and vowel harmony; and (v) morphosyntactic cliticisation approach affords best and successful analysis of contractions as clitics. These are just some of the issues. More ground needs to be covered. For instance, research is needed to determine what guides the speakers in alternating between babake and babaye. When does the speaker choose to use babake and when does s/he choose to use babaye, given that the two mean exactly the same thing?
References
Bender, E. & I.A. Sag. (2001). Incorporating Contracted Auxiliaries in English. In Ronnie Cann, C.G. & P. Miller (eds.). Grammatical Interfaces in HPSG. Stanford: CSLI Publications, 1–15.
Bybee, J. (2007). Phonology and Language Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Denzer-King, Y. (2007). Contractions. Retrieved on 25/03/2015. from http://linguistlessons.blogspot.com/2007/10/contractions.html.
Heidinger, V.A. (1984). Analyzing Syntax and Semantics: A SelfInstructional Approach for Teachers and Clinicians. Washington: Gallaudet University Press.
Kamusi Project. (2015). Pronouns. Retrieved on 10/03/2015 from http://kamusi.org/content/pronouns.
Katamba, F. (1989). An Introduction to Phonology. London and New York: Addisnon Wesley Longman Limited
Massamba, D.P.B. et al. (1999) Sarufi Miundo ya Kiswahili Sanifu (SAMIKISA): Sekondari na Vyuo, Dar es Salaam: TUKI
Mdee, J. S. (1988). Sarufi ya Kiswahili kwa Ajili ya Sekondari na Vyuo, Dar es Salaam: Education Services Centre.
Mfaume, G. E. (1984). Misingi ya Isimu ya Lugha ya Kiswahili, Dar es Salaam: Utamaduni Publishers.
Mohamed, M. A. (1986). Sarufi Mpya: New Kiswahili Grammar, Dar es Salaam: Press and Publicity Centre.
Mohammed, M. A. (2001). Modern Swahili Grammar, Nairobi/Kampala/Dar es Salaam: East Africa Educational Publishers Ltd.
Peace Corps Tanzania. (1998). Sema Kiswahili: Furahia Tanzania. (2nd ed.). Arusha: Peace Corps Tanzania.
Quizlet. (2015). Swahili - M/Wa Personal Pronouns and Contractions
(PMW-18). Retried on 10/03/2015 from
http://quizlet.com/70297161/swahili-mwa-personal-pronouns-andcontractions-pmw-18-flash-cards/.
Sadler, L. (1998). English Auxiliaries as Tense Inflections’. Essex Research Reports in Linguistics 24: 1–16.
SALAMA Project. (2015). Contractions: Nouns and Possessive Pronouns.
Retrieved on 10/03/2015 from
http://old.aramati.org/jmugane/aramati.com/html/salama1/gramma r/grammar6/6contraction.htm.
Spencer, A. & Luís, A.R. (2012). Clitics: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Spencer, A. (1991). Morphological Theory. Oxford: Blackwell.
TUKI. (2013). Kamusi ya Kiswahili Sanifu. Dar es Salaam/Nairobi: Oxford University Press.
Wescoat, M.T. (2005). English Nonsyllabic Auxiliary Contractions: An Analysis in LFG with Lexical Sharing. In Butt, M. & T.H. King (eds.) Proceedings of the LFG05 Conference. CSLI Publications. Retrieved on 21/02/2015 from http://csli-publications.stanford.edu/.
22 Titus Mpemba
Zwicky, A.M. & G.K. Pullum. (1983). Cliticization vs. Inflection: English n’t. Language 59:502-513.
Zwicky, A.M. (1977). Auxiliary Reduction in English. Linguistic Inquiry 1:323-336.
Appendix
Permissible and Impermissible Noun-Possessive Contractions
1. M-/WA- class
S/
No Example noun Gloss Poss. “angu” (1stpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ako”
(2ndpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ake”
(3rdpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “etu”
(1stppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “enu” (2ndppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ao” (3rdppl.) and resulting NP contractn.
(i) Baba father(s) babangu babako; babayo; babazo babake; babaye; babaze babetu(sg.) babenu(sg.) babao(sg.)
(ii) Mama mother(s) mamangu mamako; mamayo; mamazo mamake; mamaye; mamaze mametu(sg.) mamenu(sg.) mamao(sg.)
(iii) Dada sister(s) dadangu dadako; dadayo; dadazo dadake; dadaye; dadaze dadetu(sg.) dadenu(sg.) dadao(sg.)
(iv) Mwana Wana child children mwanangu wanangu ?mwanako; mwana(w)o; wana(w)o ?mwanake; mwanawe; wanawe mwanetu; wanetu mwanenu; wanenu *mwanao
*wanao
(v) Nyanya grandma(s) nyanyangu nyanyako; nyanyayo; nyanyazo nyanyaye; nyanyaze nyanyetu nyanyenu nyanyao
(vi) Mume Waume husband husbands *mumengu
*mumangu
*waumengu
*waumangu *mumeko; mumeo; ?wameo; ?wamezo; waumezo *mumeke; mumewe; ?wamewe; waumewe waumeze ?mumetu;
*waumetu ?mumenu;
?waumenu *mume(w)o;
*waume(w)o
(vii) Mke Wake wife wives *mkengu
*mkangu
*wakengu
*wakangu *mkeko; mkeo
*wakeko; ?wakeo; wakezo *mkeke; mkewe; wakewe; wakeze ?mketu;
?waketu ?mkenu;
?wakenu *mke(w)o;
*wake(w)o
(viii) Bibi grandma(s) *bibingu
*bibangu *bibiko; bibiyo; bibizo *bibike; bibiye; bibize *bibetu *bibenu ?bibio
(ix) Mpenzi Wapenzi love(r) lovers *mpenzingu
*wapenzingu *mpenziko mpenzio; wapenzio *mpenzike mpenziwe; wapenziwe *mpenzitu
*wapenzitu ?mpenzinu
?wapenzinu ?mpenzi(w)o
?wapenzi(w)o
(x) Mwenza/ Mwenzi Wenza/ Wenzi partner; companion; partners; companions mwenzangu *mwenzingu wenzangu *wenzingu
mwenzako; wenzako; mwenzio; wenzio mwenzake; wenzake; mwenziwe; mwenzie; wenziwe; wenzie mwenzetu; wenzetu mwenzenu; wenzenu mwenzao; wenzao
(xi) Mpangaji Wapangaji tenant *mpangajingu
*mpagajangu *mpangajiko;m pangajio; wapangajio *mpangajike;m pangajiwe; wapangajiwe *mpangajitu
* wapangajitu *mpangajinu
* wapangajinu ?mpangaji(w)o? wapangaji(w)o
(xii) Somo namesake(s)
; initiation instructor(s) *somongu
*somangu *somoko; somoyo; somozo *somoke; somoye; somoze ?sometu ?somenu *somo(w)o
(xiii) Babu grandfather( s) *babungu *babuko; babuyo; babuzo *babuke; babuye; babuze *babutu *babunu *babuo
(xiv) Mjukuu Wajukuu grandchild grandchildren *mjukuungu
*mjukangu
*wajukuungu
*wajukangu *mjukuuko; *mjukako; mjukuuyo wajukuuzo *mjukuuke; *mjukake; mjukuuye *wajuuke; *wajukake; wajukuuze *mjuketu;
*wajuketu *mjukuunu;
*wajukuunu ?mjukuu(w)o;
*wajukuu(w)o
2. M-/MI- class
S/
No Sample noun Gloss Poss. “angu” (1stpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ako”
(2ndpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ake”
(3rdpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “etu”
(1stppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “enu” (2ndppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ao” (3rdppl.) and resulting NP contractn.
(i) Mtima Mitima heart hearts mtimangu; mitimangu mtimako; mtima(w)o; mitimayo mtimake; mtimawe; mitimaye ?mtimetu
?mitimetu ?mtimenu
?mitimenu *mtimao mitimao
(ii) Mpera Mipera guava tree guava trees mperangu miperangu ?mperako; mpera(w)o; miperayo ?mperake; mperawe; miperaye ?mperetu;
?miperetu ?mperenu;
?miperenu ?mperao
?miperao
(iii) Mzuka Mizuka ghost/spirit ghosts/spirits mzukangu; mizukangu mzukako; mzuka(w)o; mizukayo ?mzukake; mzukawe; mizukaye ?mzuketu
?mizuketu ?mzukenu
?mizukenu ?mzukao
?mizukao
(iv) Msukule Misukule -
-
*msukulengu;
*msukulangu
*misukulengu
*misukulangu *msukuleko;
*msukulako
*misukuleko; *misukulako msukule(wo) misukuleyo *msukuleke;
*msukulake
*misukuleke; *misukulake msukulewe misukuleye ?msukuletu
?misukuletu ?msukulenu
?misukulenu ?msukulao; msukuleo ?misukulao; misukuleo
(v) Mkate Mikate bread *mkatengu;
*mkatangu
*mikatengu
*mikatangu *mkateko; *mkatako; mkate(w)o; *mikateko; *mikatako; mikateyo *mkateke; *mkatake; mkatewe *mikateke; *mikatake; mikateye mkatetu mikatetu mkatenu mikatenu ?mkateo *mkatao mikateo
(vi) Mkunde Mikunde cowpea plant cowpea plants *mkundengu
*mkundangu
*mikundengu
*mikundangu *mkundeko; *mkundako; mkunde(w)o; *mikundeko; *mikundako; mikundeyo *mkundeke; *mkundake; mkundewe; *mikundeke; *mikundake; mikundeye mkundetu; mikundetu mkundenu; mikundenu ?mkundeo; *mkundao mikundeo
(vii) Mti Miti tree trees *mtingu;
*mtangu
*mitingu
*mitangu *mtiko; *mtako; mti(w)o;
*mitiko;
*mitako; mitiyo *mtike; *mtake; mtiwe *mitike; *mitake; mitiye *mtitu; *mtetu *mititu; *mitetu *mtinu; *mtenu
*mitinu; *mitenu *mtio; *mtao
*mitio; *mitao
(viii) Mzigo Mizigo luggage *mzigongu;
*mzigangu
*mizigongu
*mizigangu *mzigoko; *mzigako; mzigo(w)o; *mizigoko; *mizigako; mizigoyo *mzigoke; *mzigake; mzigowe; *mizigoke; *mizigake; mizigoye *mzigotu;
*mzigetu
*mizigotu;
*mizigetu *mzigonu;
*mzigenu
*mizigonu;
*mizigenu *mzigoo;
*mzigao
*mizigoo;
*mizigao
(ix) Mtindo Mitindo style styles *mtindongu;
*mtindangu
*mitindongu
*mitindangu *mtindoko; *mtindako; mtindowo; *mitindoko; *mitindako; mitindoyo *mtindoke; *mtindake; mtindowe; *mitindoke; *mitindake; mitindoye *mtindotu;
*mtindetu;
*mitindotu;
*mitindetu; *mtindonu;
*mtindenu
*mitindonu;
*mitindenu *mtindoo;
*mtindao
*mitindoo;
*mitindao
(x) Mgogoro Migogoro conflict conflicts *mgogorongu; *mgogorangu
*migogorongu
*migogorangu *mgogoroko; *mgogorako; mgogorowo; *migogoroko; *migogorako; migogoroyo *mgogoroke; *mgogorake; mgogorowe; *migogoroke; *migogorake; migogoroye *mgogorotu; *mgogoretu
*migogorotu; *migogoretu *mgogoronu; *mgogorenu
*migogoronu; *migogorenu *mgogoroo; *mgogorao
*migogoroo; *migogorao
(xi) Mkufu Mikufu chain chains *mkufungu; *mkufangu
*mikufungu
*mikufangu *mkufuko; *mkufako; mkufu(w)o; *mikufuko; *mikufako; mikufuyo *mkufuke; *mkufake; mkufuwe; *mikufuke; *mikufake; mikufuye *mkufutu; *mkufetu
*mikufutu; *mikufetu *mkufunu; *mkufenu
*mikufunu; *mikufenu *mkufuo;
?mkufao
*mikufuo; ?mikufao
(xii) Mkungu Mikungu bunch (e.g. of banana) bunches *mkungungu; *mkungangu
*mikungungu
*mikungangu *mkunguko; *mkungako; mkungu(w)o; *mikunguko; *mikungako; mikunguyo *mkunguke; *mkungake; mkunguwe; *mikunguke; *mikungake; mikunguye *mkungutu; *mkungetu
*mikungutu; *mikungetu *mkungunu; *mkungenu
*mikungunu; *mikungenu ?mkunguo; ?mkungao
*mikunguo; ?mikungao
3. JI-/MA- class
S/
No Sample noun Gloss Poss. “angu” (1stpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ako”
(2ndpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ake”
(3rdpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “etu”
(1stppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “enu” (2ndppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ao” (3rdppl.) and resulting NP contractn.
(xii) Jina Majina name names ?jinangu; majinangu ?jinako; jinalo
majinangu; majinayo ?jinake; jinale majinake; majinaye *jinatu;
*jinetu *majinatu; majinetu *jinanu;
*jinenu *majinanu; majinenu *jinao majinao
(xiii) Shamba Mashamba farm farms ?shambangu mashambangu ?shambako; shambalo mashambayo ?shambake; shambale mashambaye *shambatu; *shambetu; *mashambatu mashambetu *shambanu; *shambenu; *mashambanu mashambenu ?shambao mashambao
(xiv) Duka Maduka shop/store shops/stores ?dukangu; madukangu ?dukako; dukalo; madukayo ?dukake; dukale; madukaye *dukatu;
*duketu;
*madukatu maduketu *dukanu;
*dukenu; *madukanu madukenu ?dukao madukao
(xv) Teke Mateke kick kicks *tekengu;
*tekangu
*matekengu
*matekangu *tekeko;
*tekako; tekelo
*matekeko; ?matekako matekeyo *tekeke;
*tekake; tekele
*matekeke; ?matekake matekeye *teketu ?mateketu *tekenu ?matekenu *tekao; *tekeo ?matekao; matekeo
(xvi) Macheche restlessness *machechengu; machechangu *machecheko; machechako; machecheyo *machecheke; machechake; machecheye machechetu machechenu ?machecheo machechao
(xvii) Ini
Maini liver livers *iningu
*inangu
*mainingu
*mainangu *iniko; *inako; inilo; *mainiko; *mainako; mainiyo *inike; *inake; inile; *mainike; *mainake; mainiye *initu; *inetu
*mainitu;
*mainetu *ininu; *inenu
*maininu;
*mainenu *inio; *inao *mainao; mainio
(xviii) Wimbi Mawimbi wave waves *wimbingu;
*wimbangu
*mawimbingu
*mawimbangu *wimbiko; *wimbako; wimbilo;
*mawimbiko; *mawimbako; mawimbiyo *wimbike; *wimbake; wimbile *mawimbike; *mawimbake; mawimbiye *wimbitu;
*wimbetu
*mawimbitu;
*mawibetu *wimbinu;
*wimbenu
*mawimbinu;
*mawimbenu ?wimbio;
*wimbao
?mawimbio;
*mawimbao
(xix) Pigo
Mapigo blow blows *pigongu;
*pigangu
*mapigongu
*mapigangu *pigoko; *pigako; pigolo;
*mapigoko; *mapigako; mapigoyo *pigoke; *pigake; pigole;
*mapigoke; *mapigake; mapigoye *pigotu; *pigetu
*mapigotu;
*mapigetu *pigonu;
*pigenu
*mapigonu;
*mapigenu *pigoo; *pigao
*mapigoo;
*mapigao
(xx) Lengo Malengo objective objectives *lengongu;
*lengangu
*malengongu
*malengangu *lengoko; *lengako; lengolo;
*malengoko; *malengako; malengoyo *lengoke; *lengake; lengole;
*malengoke; *malengake; malengoye *lengotu;
*lengetu;
*malengotu; *malengetu; *lengonu;
*lengenu
*malengonu;
*malengenu *lengoo;
*lengao
*malengoo;
*malengao
(xxi) Lopoo Malopoo offprint offprints *lopoongu;
*lopoangu
*malopoongu
*malopoangu *lopooko; *lopoako; lopoolo;
*malopooko; *malopoako; malopooyo *lopooke; *lopoake; lopoole;
*malopooke; *malopoake; malopooye *lopootu;
*lopoetu
*malopootu;
?malopoetu *lopoonu;
*lopoenu
*malopoonu;
?malopoenu *lopooo;
?lopoao
*malopooo;
?malopoao
(xxii) Dau Madau dhow dhows *daungu;
*mkufangu
*madaungu
*mikufangu *dauko; daulo; *madauko; madauyo *dauke; daule *madauke; madauye *dautu; *madautu *daunu; *madaunu ?dauo ?madauo
(xxiii) Maajabu wonders *maajabungu;
*maajabangu *maajabuko; *maajabako; maajabuyo *maajabuke; *maajabake; maajabuye *maajabutu;
*maajabetu *maajabunu;
*maajabenu ?maajabuo;
*maajabao
4. KI-/VI- class
S/
No Sample noun Gloss Poss. “angu” (1stpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ako”
(2ndpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ake”
(3rdpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “etu”
(1stppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “enu” (2ndppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ao” (3rdppl.) and resulting NP contractn.
(i) Kina
Vina rhyme rhymes *kinangu;
*vinangu *kinako; kinacho; *vinako; vinavyo *kinake; kinache; *vinake; vinavye *kinatu; *kinetu
*vinatu; *vinetu *kinanu;
*kinenu
*vinanu;
*vinenu *kinao
*vinao
(ii) Kinaa satisfaction *kinaangu *kinaako; kinaacho *kinaake; kinaache *kinaatu;
*kinaetu *kinaanu;
*kinaenu *kinaao
(iii) Kitanda
Vitanda bed beds *kitandangu;
*vitandangu *kitandako; kitandacho; *vitandako; vitandavyo *kitandake; kitandache; *vitandake; vitandavye *kitandatu;
*kitandetu
*vitandatu;
*vitandetu *kitandanu;
*kitandenu
*vitandanu;
*vitandenu *kitandao
*vitandao
(iv) Kipengee
Vipengee component
components
*kipengeengu;
*kipengangu
*vipengeengu
*vipengangu *kipengeeko; *kipengako; kipengeecho *vipengeeko; *vipengako; vipengeevyo *kipengeeke; *kipengake; kipengeeche *vipengeeke; *vipengake; vipengeevye *kipengeetu;
*kipengatu
*vipengeetu;
*vipengatu *kipengeenu;
*kipenganu
*vipengeenu;
*vipenganu *kipengeeo;
*kipengao
*vipengeo;
*vipengao
(v) Kibwebwe
Vibwebwe girdle girdles *kibwewengu;
*kibwebwangu *vibwewengu
*vibwebwangu *kibweweko; *kibwebwako; kibwewecho *vibweweko; *vibwebwako; vibwewevyo *kibweweke; *kibwebwake; kibweweche *vibweweke; *vibwebwake; vibwewevye *kibwewetu;
*kibwebwatu *vibwewetu;
*vibwebwatu *kibwewenu;
*kibwebwanu *vibwewenu;
*vibwebwanu *kibweweo;
*kibwebwao *vibweweo;
*vibwebwao
(vi) Kialamize
Vialamize signifier signifiers *kialamizengu;
*kialamizangu
*vialamizengu
*vialamizangu *kialamizeko; *kialamizako; kialamizecho *vialamizeko; *vialamizako; vialamizevyo *kialamizeke; *kialamizake; kialamizeche *vialamizeke; *vialamizake; vialamizevye *kialamizetu;
*kialamizatu
*vialamizetu;
*vialamizatu *kialamizenu; *kialamizanu
*vialamizenu;
*vialamizanu *kialamizeo;
*kialamizao
*vialamizeo;
*vialamizao
(vii) Kiburi
Viburi arrogance or sturbonness *kiburingu;
*kiburangu
*viburingu
*viburangu *kiburiko; *kiburako; kiburicho *viburiko;
*viburako;
?viburivyo *kiburike; *kiburake; kiburiche *viburike;
*viburake;
?viburivye *kiburitu;
*kiburetu
*viburitu;
*viburetu *kiburinu;
*kiburenu
*viburinu;
*viburenu *kiburio;
*kiburao
*viburio;
*viburao
(viii) Kipepeo Vipepeo hand-fan hand-fans *kipepeongu;
*kipepeangu
*vipepeongu
*vipepeangu *kipepeoko; *kipepeako; kipepeocho *vipepeoko; *vipepeako; vipepeovyo *kipepeoke; *kipepeake; kipepeoche *vipepeoke; *vipepeake; vipepeovye *kipepeotu;
*kipepeatu
*vipepeotu;
*vipepeatu *kipepeonu;
*kipepeanu
*vipepeonu;
*vipepeanu *kipepeoo;
*kipepeao
*vipepeoo;
*vipepeao
(ix) Kipeto
Vipeto parcel parcels *kipetongu;
*kipetangu
*vipetongu
*vipetangu *kipetoko; *kipetako; kipetocho *vipetoko; *vipetako; vipetovyo *kipetoke; *kipetake; kipetoche *vipetoke; *vipetake; vipetovye *kipetotu;
*kipetatu
*vipetotu;
*vipetatu *kipetonu;
*kipetanu
*vipetonu;
*vipetanu *kipetoo;
*kipetao
*vipetoo;
*vipetao
(x) Kiango
Viango wall-hook wall-hooks *kiangongu; *kiangangu
*viangongu
*viangangu *kiangoko; *kiangako; kiangocho *viangoko; *viangako; viangovyo *kiangoke; *kiangake; kiangoche *viangoke; *viangake; viangovye *kiangotu;
*kiangatu
*viangotu; *viangatu *kiangonu;
*kianganu
*viangonu; *vianganu *kiangoo;
*kiangao
*viangoo; *viangao
(xi) Kifuku Vifuku rain season rain seasons *kifukungu;
*kifukangu
*vifukungu
*vifukangu *kifukuko;
*kifukako;
?kifukucho;
*vifukuko; *vifukako;
?vifukuvyo *kifukuke; *kifukake; kifukuche; *vifukuke; *vifukake; vifukuvye *kifukutu; *kifuketu *vifukutu;
*vifuketu *kifukunu; *kifukenu *vifukunu;
*vifukenu *kifukuo; *kifukao *vifukuo;
?vifukao
(xii) Kitunguu Vitunguu onion onions *kitunguungu;
*kitungangu
*vitunguungu *vitungangu *kitunguuko; *kitungako; kitunguucho; *vitunguuko; *vitungako; vitunguuvyo *kitunguuke; *kitungake; kitunguuche; *vitunguuke; *vitungake; vitunguuvye *kitunguutu;
*kitungetu
*vitunguutu; *vitungetu *kitunguunu;
*kitungenu
*vitunguunu; *vitungenu *kitunguuo; *kitunguao *vitunguuo; *vitungwao
5. N-/N- class
S/
No Example noun Gloss Poss. “angu” (1stpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ako”
(2ndpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ake”
(3rdpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “etu”
(1stppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “enu” (2ndppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ao” (3rdppl.) and resulting NP contractn.
(i) Nyumba house(s) nyumbangu nyumbako; nyumbayo; nyumbazo nyumbake; nyumbaye; nyumbaze nyumbetu(sg.) nyumbenu(sg.) nyumbao(sg.)
(ii) Kamba rope(s) kambangu kambako; kambayo; kambazo kambake; kambaye; kambaze ?kambetu ?kambenu(sg.) kambao(sg.)
(iii) Familia family(ies) familiangu ?familiako; familiayo familiazo ?familiake; familiaye; familiaze *familietu(sg.) *familienu familiao(sg.)
(iv) Maabara laboratory(ies) *maabarangu ?maabarako; maabarayo maabarazo ?maabarake; maabaraye; maabaraze ?maabaretu ?maabarenu ?maabarao
(v) Kengele bell(s) *kengelengu *kengeleko; kengeleyo kengelezo *kengeleke kengeleye; kengeleze ?kengeletu ?kengelenu ?kengeleo
*kengelao
(vi) Baraste speedway(s) *barastengu
*barastangu *barasteko; barasteyo barastezo *barasteke; barasteye barasteze ?barastetu ?barastenu *barasteo;
?barastao
(vii) Sherehe celebration(s) *sherehengu
*sherehangu *shereheko; shereheyo sherehezo *shereheke; shereheye shereheze ?sherehetu ?sherehenu *shereheo;
*sherehewo
*sherehao
(viii) Akili intelligence/inte llect *akilingu
*akilangu *akiliko; *akilako; akiliyo; akilizo *akilike; *akilake; akiliye; akilize *akilitu; *akiletu *akilinu; *akilenu *akilio; *akilao
(ix) Ajali accident(s) *ajalingu;
*ajalangu *ajaliko; *ajalako; ajaliyo; ajalizo *ajalike; *ajalake ajaliye; ajalize *ajalitu *ajaletu *ajalinu
*ajalenu *ajalio
*ajalao
(x) Bei price(s) *beingu
*beiko; beiyo *beike; beiye beize *beitu; *beetu;
*betu *beinu;
*beenu;
*benu ?beio;
*beao
(xi) Sahani plate(s) *sahaningu;
*sahanangu
*sahaniko; *sahanako; sahaniyo sahanizo *sahanike; *sahanake; sahaniye sahanize *sahanitu;
*sahanetu *sahaninu;
*sahanenu *sahanio; *sahanao
(xii) Simu phone(s) *simungu;
*simangu
*simuko; *simako; simuyo simuzo *simuke; *simake; simuye simuze *simutu;
*simetu *simunu;
*simenu *simuo; *simao
(xiii) Siku day(s) *sikungu;
*sikangu
*sikuko; *sikako; sikuyo sikuzo *sikuke; *sikake; sikuye sikuze *sikutu; *siketu *sikunu;
*sikenu *sikuo; *sikao
(xiv) Pingu handcuff(s) *pingungu;
*pingangu
*pinguko; *pingako; pinguyo pinguzo *pinguke; *pingake; pinguye pinguze *pingutu;
*pingetu *pingunu;
*pingenu *pinguo;
*pingao
(xv) Hukumu judgement(s) *hukumungu
*hukumangu *hukumuko; *hukumako; hukumuyo hukumuzo *hukumuke; *hukumake; hukumuye hukumuze *hukumutu;
*hukumetu *hukumunu;
*hukumenu ?hukumuo;
*hukumao
6. U-/N- (Ø-) class
S/
No Sample noun Gloss Poss. “angu” (1stpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ako”
(2ndpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ake”
(3rdpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “etu”
(1stppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “enu” (2ndppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ao” (3rdppl.) and resulting NP contractn.
(i) Uga Nyuga field fields ?ugangu
*nyugangu *ugako; uga(w)o *nyugako; nyugazo *ugake; ugawe *nyugake; nyugaze *ugatu; *ugetu
*nyugatu;
*nyugetu *uganu;
*ugenu
*nyuganu;
*nyugenu ?ugao
?nyugao
(ii) Ua
Nyua fence fences ?uangu
*nyuangu *uako; ua(w)o *nyuako; nyuazo *uake; uawe *nyuake; nyuaze *uatu;
*uetu
*nyuatu;
*nyuetu *uanu;
*uenu
*nyuanu;
*nyuenu ?uao
?nyuao
(iii) Ukuta Kuta wall walls ?ukutangu
*kutangu *ukutako; ukuta(w)o *kutako; kutazo *ukutake; ukutawe *kutake; kutaze *ukutatu;
*ukutetu
*kutatu; *kutetu *ukutanu;
*ukutenu
*kutanu
*kutenu ?ukutao
?kutao
(iv) Wembe Nyembe razor blade
razor blades
*wembengu;
*wembangu
*nyembengu
*nyembangu *wembeko; *wembako; wembe(w)o *nyembeko; *nyembako; nyembezo *wembeke; *wembake; wembewe *nyembeke; *nyembake; nyembeze *wembetu;
*nyembetu *wembenu
*nyembenu *wembeo;
*wembao
*nyembeo;
*nyembao
(v) Uele
Ndwele diseas deases *uelengu;
*uelangu
*ndwelengu
?ndwelangu *ueleko; *uelako; uele(w)o *ndweleko; *ndwelako; ndwelezo *ueleke; *uelake; uelewe *ndweleke; *ndwelake; ndweleze *ueletu; *ndweletu *uelenu
?ndwelenu *ueleo; *uelao
*ndweleo;
*ndwelao
(vi) Ukosi Kosi collar collars *ukosingu;
*ukosangu
*kosingu
*kosangu *ukosiko; *ukosako; ukosi(w)o *kosiko; *kosako; kosizo *ukosike; *ukosake; ukosiwe
*kosike; *kosake; kosize *ukositu;
*ukosetu
*kositu
*kosetu *ukosinu
*ukosenu
*kosinu
*kosenu *ukosio;
*ukosao
*kosio; *kosao
(vii) Ubeti Beti stanza stanzas *ubetingu;
*ubetangu
*betingu
*betangu *ubetiko; *ubetako; ubeti(w)o *betiko; *betako; betizo *ubetike; *ubetake; ubetiwe
*betike; *betake; betize *ubetitu;
*ubetetu
*betitu
*betetu *ubetinu
*ubetenu
*betinu
*betenu *ubetio;
*ubetao
*betio; *betao
(viii) Ubano Mbano clip clips *ubanongu;
*ubanangu
*mbanongu
*mbanangu *ubanoko; *ubanako; ubano(w)o *mbanoko; *mbanako; mbanozo *ubanoke; *ubanake; ubanowe *mbanoke; *mbanake; mbanoze *ubanotu;
*ubanetu
*mbanotu
*mbanetu *ubanonu
*ubanenu
*mbanonu
*mbanenu *ubanoo;
*ubanao
*mbanoo;
*mbanao
(ix) Ukoo Koo clan; kinship clans; kinships *ukoongu; *ukoangu
*koongu
*koangu *ukooko; *ukoako; ukoo(w)o *kooko; *koako; koozo *ukooke; *ukoake; ukoowe
*kooke; *koake; kooze *ukootu; *ukoetu
*kootu
*koetu *ukoonu *ukoenu
*koonu
*koenu *ukooo; *ukoao
*kooo; *koao
(x) Ubeleko Mbeleko baby's sling baby's slings *ubelekongu;
*ubelekangu
*mbelekongu
*mbelekangu *ubelekoko; *ubelekako; ubeleko(w)o *mbelekoko; *mbelekako; mbelekozo *ubelekoke; *ubelekake; ubelekowe *mbelekoke; *mbelekake; mbelekoze *ubelekotu; *ubeleketu
*mbelekotu
*mbeleketu *ubelekonu
*ubelekenu
*mbelekonu
*mbelekenu *ubelekoo; *ubelekao
*mbelekoo;
*mbelekao
(xi) Ukindu Kindu wild-date-palm leaf
wild-date-palm leaves
*ukindungu;
*ukindangu
*kindungu
*kindangu *ukinduko; *ukindako; ukindu(w)o *kinduko; *kindako; kinduzo *ukinduke; *ukindake; ukinduwe *kinduke; *kindake; kinduze *ukindutu;
*ukindetu
*kindutu
*kindetu *ukindunu
*ukindenu
*kindunu
*kindenu *ukinduo;
*ukindao
*kinduo;
*kindao
(xii) Ubavu Mbavu rib ribs *ubavungu;
*ubavangu
*mbavungu
*mbavangu *ubavuko; *ubavako; ubavu(w)o *mbavuko; *mbavako; mbavuzo *ubavuke; *ubavake; ubavuwe *mbavuke; *mbavake; mbavuze *ubavutu; *ubavetu
*mbavutu
*mbavetu *ubavunu
*ubavenu
*mbavunu
*mbavenu *ubavuo; *ubavao
*mbavuo;
*mbavao
7. U-/MA- class
S/
No Sample noun Gloss Poss. “angu” (1stpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ako”
(2ndpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ake”
(3rdpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “etu”
(1stppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “enu” (2ndppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ao” (3rdppl.) and resulting NP contractn.
(i) Unyoya Manyoya feather; quil; hair strand feathers; quils; hair strands *unyoyangu;
*manyoyangu *unyoyako; unyoya(w)o; *manyoyako; manyoyayo *unyoyake; unyoyawe; *manyoyake; manyoyaye *unyoyatu;
*unyoyetu
*manyoyatu;
*manyoyetu *unyoyenu
*manyoyenu *unyoyao
*manyoyao
(ii) Ubua Mabua straw, stubble straws, stubbles *ubuangu;
*mabuangu *ubuako; ubua(w)o; *mabuako; mabuayo *ubuake; ubuawe; *mabuake; mabuaye *ubuatu;
*ubuetu
*mabuatu;
*mabuetu *ubuanu
*ubuenu
*mabuani
*mabuenu *ubuao
*mabuao
(iii) Ugonjwa Magonjwa ailment ailments ugonjwangu; magonjwangu ugonjwako; ugonjwa(w)o; magonjwako; magonjwayo ugonjwake; ugonjwawe; magonjwake; magonjwaye *ugonjwatu;
*ugonjwetu
*magonjwatu;
?magonjwetu *ugonjwanu
*ugonjwenu
*magonjwani
*magonjwenu *ugonjwao
*magonjwao
(iv) Utete Matete reed reeds
*utetengu;
*utetangu
*matetengu
*matetangu *uteteko; *utetako; utete(w)o *mateteko; *matetako; mateteyo *uteteke; *utetake; utetewe *mateteke; *matetake; mateteye *utetetu; *matetetu *utetenu; *matetenu *uteteo;
*utetao
*mateteo;
*matetao
(v) Ushuzi Mashuzi farting; flatulation *kiburingu;
*kiburangu
*viburingu
*viburangu *kiburiko; *kiburako; kiburicho *viburiko;
*viburako;
?viburivyo *kiburike; *kiburake; kiburiche *viburike;
*viburake;
?viburivye *kiburitu;
*kiburetu
*viburitu;
*viburetu *kiburinu;
*kiburenu
*viburinu;
*viburenu *kiburio;
*kiburao
*viburio;
*viburao
(vi) Ulezi Malezi upbringing *ulezingu;
*ulezangu
*malezingu
*malezangu *uleziko; *ulezako; ulezi(w)o *maleziko; *malezako; maleziyo *ulezike; *ulezake; uleziwe *malezike; *malezake; maleziye *ulezitu;
*ulezetu
*malezitu;
*malezetu *ulezinu;
*ulezenu
*malezinu;
*malezenu *ulezio;
*ulezao
*malezio;
*malezao
(vii) Ugunduzi Magunduzi discovery discoveries *ugunduzingu;
*ugunduzangu
*magunduzingu
*magunduzangu *ugunduziko; *ugunduzako; ugunduzi(w)o *magunduziko* magunduzako magunduziyo *ugunduzike; *ugunduzake; ugunduziwe *magunduzike* magunduzake magunduziye *ugunduzitu;
*ugunduzetu
*magunduzitu;
*magunduzetu *ugunduzinu;
*ugunduzenu
*magunduzinu;
*magunduzenu *ugunduzio;
*ugunduzao
*magunduzio;
*magunduzao
(viii) Wango Mawango computation; counting *wangongu;
*wangangu
*mawangongu
*mawangangu *wangoko; *wangako; wango(w)o *mawangoko; *mawangako; mawangoyo *wangoke; *wangake; wangowe *mawangoke; *mawangake; mawangoye *wangotu;
*wangetu
*mawangotu;
*mawangetu *wangonu;
*wangenu
*mawangonu;
*mawangenu *wangoo;
*wangao
*mawangoo;
*mawangao
(ix) Wano Mawano magic stick; arrow shaft magic sticks; arrow shafts *wanongu; *wanangu
*mawanongu
*mawanangu *wanoko; *wanako; wano(w)o *mawanoko; *mawanako; mawanoyo *wanoke; *wanake; wanowe *mawanoke; *mawanake; mawanoye *wanotu; *wanetu
*mawanotu; *mawanetu *wanonu; *wanenu
*mawanonu; *mawanenu *wanoo; *wanao
*mawanoo; *mawanao
KU- class
S/
No Example noun Gloss Poss. “angu” (1stpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ako”
(2ndpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ake”
(3rdpsg.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “etu”
(1stppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “enu” (2ndppl.) and resulting NP contractn. Poss. “ao” (3rdppl.) and resulting NP contractn.
(i) Kuimba singing ?kuimbangu ?kuimbako;
*kuimbakwo;
*kuimbayo *kuimbake;
*kuimbakwe;
*kuimbaye *kuimbetu *kuimbenu *kuimbao
(ii) Kusoma reading; studying ?kusomangu ?kusomako;
*kusomakwo;
*kusomayo *kusomake;
*kusomakwe;
*kusomaye *kusometu *kusomenu *kusomao
(iii) Kulala sleeping ?kulalangu *kulalako;
*kulalakwo;
*kulalayo *kulalake;
*kulalakwe;
*kulalaye *kulaletu *kulalenu *kulalao
(iv) Kubalehe reaching adolescence *kubalehengu ?kubaleheko;
*kubalehekwo *kubaleheke;
*kubalehekwe *kubalehetu kubalehenu *kubaleheo
(v) Kusamehe forgiving *kusamehengu *kusameheko;
*kusamehekwo *kusameheke;
*kusamehekwe *kusamehetu *kusamehenu *kusameheo
(vi) Kustarehe being confortable; live luxuriously *kustarehengu *kustareheko;
*kustarehekwo *kustareheke;
*kustarehekwe *kustarehetu *kustarehenu *kustareheo
(vii) Kusubiri waiting *kusubiringu *kusubiriko;
*kusubirikwo *kusubirike;
*kusubirikwe *kusubiritu *kusubirinu *kusubirio
(viii) Kuhubiri preaching *kuhubiringu *kuhubiriko;
*kuhubirikwo *kuhubirike;
*kuhubirikwe *kuhubiritu *kuhubirinu *kuhubirio
(ix) Kutabiri forecasting *kutabiringu *kutabiriko;
*kutabirikwo *kutabirike;
*kutabirikwe *kutabiritu *kutabirinu *kutabirio
(x) Kwenda kombo going astray *kwenda kombongu; *kwenda kombangu *kwenda komboko; *kwenda kombokwo *kwenda komboke; *kwenda kombokwe *kwenda kombotu; *kwenda kombetu *kwenda kombonu; *kwenda kombenu *kwenda komboo; *kwenda kombao
(xi) Kuangua kicheko bursting into laughter *kuangua kichekongu; *kuangua kichekangu *kuangua kichekoko; *kuangua kichekwo *kuangua kichekoke; *kuangua kichekwe *kuangua kichekotu; *kuangua kicheketu *kuangua kichekonu; *kuangua kichekenu *kuangua kichekoo; *kuangua kichekao
(xii) Kupiga punyeto musturbating *kupiga punyetongu *kupiga punyetoko; *kupiga punyetokwo *kupiga punyetoke; *kupiga punyetokwe *kupiga punyetotu *kupiga punyetetu *kupiga punyetonu *kupiga punyetenu *kupiga punyetoo; *kupiga punyetao
(xiii) Kutubu repenting *kutubungu ?kutubuko; *kutubukwo *kutubuke;
*kutubukwe *kutubutu *kutubunu
*kutubenu *kutubuo
*kutubao
(xiv) Kutibu treating *kutibungu ?kutibuko; *kutibukwo *kutibuke;
*kutibukwe *kutibutu *kutibunu
*kutibenu *kutibuo
*kutibao
(xv) Kuadhibu punishing *kuadhibungu *kuadhibuko;
*kuadhibukwo *kuadhibuke;
*kuadhibukwe *kuadhibutu *kuadhibunu
*kuadhibenu *kuadhibuo
*kuadhibao
Comments
Post a Comment